한국, 영국, EU의 스마트시티 추진 정책 비교 연구

2022년 8월

행정안전부

송윤상

목 차

1. 국외 훈련 개요

2. 훈련기관 소개

3. 국문 요약서

4. 훈련 결과 보고서 (영문 석사 학위논문)

1. 국외 훈련 개요

1) 훈련국 :  영국

2) 훈련기관 : 영국 버밍엄 대학교 (University of Birmingham)

3) 훈련분야 : 지방행정

4) 훈련기간 : 2020. 9. ~ 2022. 7.

2. 훈련 기관 소개

1) 기관명: University of Birmingham

O 주  소 : Edgbaston, Birmingham, United Kingdom (B15 2TT)

O 전화번호 : +44 (0) 121 414 3344

O 인터넷 웹주소 : www.birmingham.ac.uk

2) 과정명: MA Global Public Policy into Practice with Integrated Placement

3) 기능 및 조직

O 공립 종합대학이며, 웨스트미들랜즈 지역에서 가장  규모가  큰  대학으로, 영국에서 연구를 선도하는 20 개 명문대학으로 구성된  러셀  그룹( Russel Group)에 속해 있음

O  2020 QS세계 대학 랭킹 81위, 2021 더 타임즈 세계 대학 랭킹 107위, 영국 국내 랭킹 The Complete University Guide 13위 등 국내외에서 좋은 평가를 받고 있는 학교임. 2013 년 버밍엄 대학교는 타임즈 고등 교육 상 (Times Higher Education Awards)에서 '2014년의 대학 '으로 선정되었음. 2017년 Global Employability University Ranking은 버밍엄 대학교를 전세계 142 위, 영국 10 위로 평가했음.

< 버밍엄 대학교 Schools, institutes and departments >

O 2020년 3월 기준으로 2만 9,204명의 학생 중에 학부생이 71%, 대학원생이 29%를 차지함. 전 세계 각지에서 온 8,391명의 유학생들이 수학하고 있음. 11명의 노벨상 수상자를 배출했으며, 유명한 졸업생으로 영국의 총리를 역임한 네빌 체임벌린(Neville Chamberlain) 등이 있음.

O Study abroad 프로그램 체결된 미국 대학교들은 일리노이 어바나 샴페인, 유니버시티 오브 메릴랜드 등이 있으며, 대한민국 대학교 중 연세대학교, 고려대학교, 이화여자대학교, 포항공과대학교 등과 교환학생 협정을 맺음.

3. 국문 요약

1)　배　경

2019년 UN에서 발표한 세계 도시화전망에서는 2050년 전 세계 인구가 약 97억명을 넘어서고 2100년에는 109억 명으로 증가할 것으로 예측하고 있다. 인구의 증가와 도시집중은 주택부족, 교통혼잡, 대기질과 수질의 악화, 폐기물처리용량의 부족, 에너지 고갈 등의 다양한 도시문제를 수반하게 된다.

이 같은 도시문제 해결을 위한 대안으로 스마트시티에 대한 관심이 높아지고 있다. 스마트시티에서는 지능정보기술로 일컬어지는 4차산업 혁명의 대표적 기술인 사물인터넷(IoT: Internet of Things), 클라우드 컴퓨팅(Cloud computing), 빅데이 터(Big Data), 모바일(Mobile), 인공지능(Artificial Intelligence)이 도시공간에 적용되어 시민들이 보다 편리하고 안전한 도시생활을 영위하기 위한 기반이 마련될 것으로 전망된다. 이러한 스마트시티 구현과 관련하여 전 세계가 국가와 지역차원의 전략을 수립하여 시행 중이다. 본 연구에서는 스마트시티의 선진사례라고 할 수 있는 한국과 유럽, 영국의 정책사례를 비교 분석한다.

2) 방법론

본 연구는 과거 연구와 문헌 리뷰를 통해 스마트 시티의 개념을 포함한 다양한 이론적 논의를 살펴본다. 또한 한국과 유럽, 영국 내에서 발표된 정부 자료, 과거 논문, 기사 등을 통해 각 국가 정책의 특징, 재원 조달 방법, 확산 방식 등을 비교 분석한다. 또한 스마트 시티의 모범 사례로 평가되는 지방정부의 사례를 살펴봄으로써, 정책이 성공하기 위한 주요한 요소가 무엇인지 파악한다.

3) 결 론

결론 :　각 국가의 스마트 시티 정책의 목적은 도시문제 해결과 지속가능한 성장이라는 아젠다 내에서는 유사성을 보이지만 추진방식이나 성과 확산 방법에서는 차이점이 나타난다. EU와 영국은 스마트 정책 추진 과정에서 민간협력과 시민참여를 강조하고 있다. 이들 국가는 국가에 의한 대규모 투자보다는 지방자치단체가 민간자본과 협력하여 기존 도시의 문제해결을 위한 프로젝트를 추진하고 있다. 그리고 그 과정에서 시민의 의견을 적극적으로 수렴하여 사업내용에 반영함으로써 시민의 만족도가 높은 특징이 있다. 반면 한국의 스마트 시티는 중앙정부 주도로 시행된 신도시 위주의 탑다운 방식으로 추진되며, 대부분의 재원이 초기 대규모 인프라 구축을 위하여 투자되는 경향이 있다. 확산 방식에서도 유럽과 영국은 각기 라이트하우스 프로젝트, 미래도시 컴피티션 등을 통해 지방정부의 참여를 촉진시키고, 그들이 자발적으로 제시한 제안을 바탕으로 우수사례를 확산시키려고 하였다. 반면에 한국은 각 도시의 자생적인 스마트 시티 추진 사례를 발굴하기 보다는 중앙 정부 주도의 재정 투입을 통해 신도시를 조성하고 그곳에서 다양한 신기술을 실험하려 하였다. 한국 정부는 새로 조성하는 도시의 실험의 결과가 나온 뒤에야 다른 지방정부로의 확산을 계획하고 있다.  각 국가의 정책 비교를 종합할 때, 스마트 시티 정책의 성공 요인은 성과확산을 위한 후속조치, 스마트시티 사업 평가체계의 도입, 지식축적 플랫폼 구축, 민간참여 확대, 구체적인 산업 활성화 정책 등임을 알 수 있다.

4. 훈련결과 보고서 (영문)

Abstract

Background: The World Urbanization Prospect released by the UN in 2019 predicts that the global population will exceed about 9.7 billion by 2050 and increase to 10.9 billion by 2100. Population growth and urban concentration are accompanied by various urban problems such as housing shortages, traffic congestion, deterioration of air quality and water quality, lack of waste disposal capacity, and energy depletion. As an alternative to solving such urban problems, interest in smart cities is increasing. In Smart City, Internet of Things (IoT), Cloud computing, Big data, Mobile, and Artificial intelligence, which are representative technologies of the 4th Industrial Revolution, are expected to be applied to urban spaces, laying the foundation for citizens to lead a more convenient and safe urban life. In relation to the implementation of such smart cities, the world has established and implemented strategies at the national and regional levels. This study compares and analyzes policy cases in Korea, Europe, and the UK, which can be said to be advanced cases of smart cities.

Methodology: This study examines various theoretical discussions, including the concept of smart city, through past studies and literature reviews. In addition, it compares and analyzes the characteristics of each country's policies, financing methods, and diffusion methods through government data, past papers, and articles published in Korea, Europe, and the UK. Also, by looking at the cases of local governments evaluated as best practices for smart cities, it aims to understand what the main factors for policy are to succeed.

Results: The purpose of each country's smart city policy shows similarities within the agenda of solving urban problems and sustainable growth, but there are differences in the method of promotion and performance diffusion. In these countries, rather than large-scale investment by the state, local governments cooperate with private capital to promote projects to solve existing urban problems.  In the process, citizens' opinions are actively collected and reflected in the project contents, which is characterized by high satisfaction of citizens. On the other hand, smart cities in Korea are promoted in a top-down method centered on new towns led by the central government, and most of the financial resources tend to be invested for the initial large-scale infrastructure construction. In terms of diffusion method, Europe and the UK promoted the participation of local governments through the Light House Project and the Future Cities Demonstrator Competition. They also tried to spread the best practices based on the proposals they voluntarily presented. On the other hand, rather than discovering each city's autonomous smart city promotion case, Korea tried to create a new city through central government-led financial input and experiment with various new technologies.  The Korean government is planning to spread to other local governments only after the results of the new city's experiments.  When comparing policies of each country, it can be seen that the success factors of smart city policies are follow-up measures for performance diffusion, introduction of a smart city project evaluation system, establishment of a knowledge accumulation platform, expansion of private participation, and specific industrial revitalization policies.

Chapter 1: Introduction

1. 1. Background

Cities are spaces where people work, shop, raise children, receive education, and enjoy cultural life. Cities have been developed by providing roads and transportation infrastructure for citizens' movement, operating water and sewage facilities for health and hygiene, and providing security for safety. The World Urbanization Prospects Report predicts that 66% of the total population will live in cities by 2020 as the urban population, which was observed to be 30% in 1950, continuing to increase (UN, 2018). According to UN, the global urbanization rate remained in the 40% range from the early 1980s to the mid-2000s but has been on the rise since exceeding 50% in the late 2000s. In particular, the urbanization rate of developed countries has already reached 80%, and the rate of developing countries is also showing a rapid rise.

Such rapid urbanization has a huge impact on the urban economy and the quality of life of citizens in various aspects such as effective resource utilization, transportation, environment, medical care, and health. For example, overcrowding causes high transportation time costs due to traffic jams. Urban waste is also causing serious problems, with the world's urban waste estimated to rise from 1.3 billion tons a year to 2.2 billion tons by 2025. Air pollution is also serious. According to the Deloitte (2018), global air pollution increased by 8% from 2008 to 2013, and only 12% of the world's population lives in cities that meet air pollution guidelines (Deloitte, 2018). Urban air pollution is highly likely to have fatal consequences for the health of urban residents, and to spread to medical and health problems of urban residents. In addition, the establishment of urban infrastructure and communication networks due to the expansion of demand for education, housing, and communication networks is also an important urban problem.

In short, as cities grow, residents increase, and the functions and facilities provided by cities increase, managing cities has become expensive and difficult. Since urban infrastructure cannot be increased indefinitely due to limited resources, new solutions that incorporate ICT technology into existing infrastructure are attracting attention. Examples of using technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), sensors, big data, and artificial intelligence to manage cities efficiently are as follows. Analyzing traffic volume in real time to adjust the traffic signal system, adjusting the demand and supply of electricity with a smart grid, and adjusting streetlights according to human movement are typical examples. In this way, a method of analyzing information collected by installing sensors throughout urban facilities and connecting them to the Internet of Things is called smart city.

Countries around the world are actively promoting smart city policies that maximize efficiency by incorporating ICT technology into existing urban infrastructure. Governments and local governments around the world are promoting smart city projects according to different goals such as solving urban problems and strengthening national competitiveness. According to Jung (2020), in the United States and Europe, interest in urban regeneration projects that can overcome the aging of urban facilities and the decline of urban areas is increasing, and various policies such as energy and transportation are being promoted for sustainable urban development in preparation for climate change and resource depletion. On the other hand, in emerging countries such as Asia and Latin America, infrastructure shortages such as housing, water, energy, and roads are becoming a serious problem due to rapid population growth and population movement to cities. Smart city policies are being promoted to cope with the rapid increase in energy demand due to rapid urbanization and industrialization.

1. 2. Research aim

This study intends to examine the theoretical discussion of smart city policy, which is attracting attention as a new solution to urban problems, under such environmental changes. Until now, the concept of smart city differs depending on the economic level or policy of each country, region, or city, and there is a consensus that there is no universally usable concept.

Also, in order to find out how smart city policies are actually implemented in reality, we will compare and analyze the policies of leading smart city countries, and find out what factors make smart city policies successful through representative examples.

1. 3. Methodology

The composition of this paper is as follows. Chapter 2 examines the theoretical discussion of the positive and negative aspects of the emergence of the smart city concept and the actual policy execution process through past studies and literature reviews.

Chapter 3 summarizes various definitions of the smart city concept and the components that make up the smart city through past research. It also examines how state and local governments solve urban problems through smart city policies.

In Chapter 4, I study the cases of countries where actual smart city policies are implemented through government presentation materials, past papers, and articles. Korea, Europe, and the United Kingdom were selected as the target regions for analysis. Smart city policies of the UK and the European Union are often introduced as leading examples in Korea, and many parts of Korea's smart city policy establishment are reflected. Through data published by each government and existing literature research, the subject of smart city policy, how to raise funds, and how to spread technology and knowledge are compared. In addition, I examine how smart city policies actually improve the quality of life of citizens through representative local government case studies.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2. 1. Precious studies focusing on the positive aspects of smart cities

Studies emphasizing the positive aspects are based on the perception that active information sharing, exchange, and participation among citizens can be promoted through the use of various technology infrastructures in smart cities, and individual rights as political entities in smart cities will be further strengthened.

Townsend (2013) predicts that the establishment of a smart city will provide a historic opportunity to enhance transparency, openness and democracy in government operations, such as enabling city governments to respond immediately to citizens' needs. In particular, in terms of making the democratic decision-making process more efficient and convenient, he argued about smart cities as a new civic movement in which residents change the city from below (Townsend, 2013)

Pineda (2021) studied numerous best practices to demonstrate strategies used by cities around the world to address the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on accessibility to public health, education, employment and essential services. This paper includes measures that government and city leaders can take at the local level using smart city solutions to effectively establish a defense system against the pandemic of infectious diseases.

Vilarino (2021) studied Living Lab, which is part of the way citizens participate in smart city governance. He argued that Living Lab is a user-centered multi-stakeholder approach to open innovation, which plays a very important role in solving the complex problems faced by smart cities and communities.

2. 2. Previous studies emphasizing policy aspects

A representative study looking at smart city from a policy point of view is Jang (2017)'s study, which diagnoses the performance and problems of smart city and suggests the direction for the future of smart city in Korea. In this study, case analysis of various countries, smart city-related trends and issues analysis, and in-depth interviews with experts were performed. In this study, responses to the 4th industrial revolution, advancement of the project management system, support for private sector-led overseas expansion, and improvement of related legal systems were argued as necessary for domestic smart cities to secure competitiveness.

There is also study that try to introduce smart cities to existing cities by reflecting changes in urban policies such as strengthening urban regeneration. Lee et al. (2012) presented a policy plan to classify and apply smart cities into four types: urban function activation type, service provision and city management type, infrastructure expansion type, and urban regeneration type. This study is meaningful in that it tried to convert the smart city business that had been concentrated in the new city to the existing city.

Hwang (2013) conducted a survey of 163 local government officials in Korea and proposed services that must be provided to ensure the minimum quality of smart cities. This study pointed out that each smart city has a different level and the quality of services provided is different, and argued that 14 essential services such as transportation and crime prevention must be guaranteed in order to be recognized as smart cities

Kim (2021) argues that, through case studies of major cities such as London, New York, Boston, and Seoul, startups and industrial ecosystem recovery using digital technology are essential for sustainable growth of cities and securing future competitiveness. In order to realize this, he argues that the production infrastructure of a smart city, which is equipped with cutting-edge experimental and production equipment, can freely experiment with ideas and make prototypes, and acts like a campus that promotes the exchange of knowledge.

2. 3. Previous studies on the side effects of smart city

Recently, in the Western academia, critical voices against the development of smart cities and various problems brought about by new technologies introduced into urban spaces are increasing (Lee et al., 2019). In other words, censorship, surveillance, and strengthening of the system according to the spread of digital technology threaten the promotion of citizens' rights and can lead to a crisis of democracy.

Hollands (2008) questioned the prevailing reality regarding smart cities, which only overly optimistically evaluates the positive effects of technological advances on urban space. Specifically, it was argued that the pro-business and neoliberal biases are at the bottom of the smart city discourse, and therefore, smart cities are only a variation of a kind of urban entrepreneurship utilizing advanced technologies.

Wiig (2015; 2016) critically analyzed the role global IT companies played in the process of spreading the vision of smart cities and justifying policies. Specifically, citing the Philadelphia Smart City Project, in which IBM directly participated in policy consulting, IT companies argued that data-based city settlement would benefit cities and residents, rather concealing the expansion of entrepreneurial and neoliberal city development strategies (Wiig, 2015). In addition, it was also criticized that the introduction of the smart city project focuses more on promoting and marketing cities in the global economy than on actually solving urban problems such as urban inequality. He also points out that the various socio-economic issues that the city faces are only technical problems, and that the solution to them is also limited to technical dimensions (Wiig, 2016).

Das (2019) argued that, as private enterprises play an increasingly important role in India’s recent ‘100 Smart Cities Project’, this weakens the status of democratically elected bureaucrats and leaders. This is because private companies are considered innovative, competitive and creative in promoting smart city projects, and in effect occupy a leading position in the project. In particular, he pointed out that privatization and profit-oriented neoliberal urbanization are accelerating, such as providing an important pretext for passing laws related to deregulation that facilitate business activities.

Vanolo (2014) argues that in the smart city paradigm, urban development policies are considered to be based on a single model applicable everywhere, and as a result, the socio-political complexity of urban problems is castrated and only the application of technological solutions is emphasized. It is argued that this ultimately consolidates the 'technocracy system' centered on bureaucrats and elites in urban politics.

Green (2019) argued that the current smart city structure is fundamentally undemocratic. Many of the technologies associated with smart cities are becoming attractive tools for censorship and social control, gathering information not controlled by individuals and using opaque and sometimes proprietary algorithms to make decisions that have a significant impact on citizens' lives. He criticizes that democracy in the smart city is only an illusion, and that the actual smart city will build a new surveillance system reinforced with various digital technologies.

Chapter 3: Concepts and Characteristics of Smart Cities

3. 1. Concept of smart city

3. 1. 1. Diversity of smart city concepts

According to a 2014 International Telecommunication Union (ITU, 2014) survey, there are 116 definitions of smart cities worldwide. Looking at the key keywords of smart cities, 26% of ICT, communication, intelligence, and information, 17% of infrastructure and services, 17% of environment and sustainability, 17% of people, citizens, and 12% of society.

Since the concept of smart cities is presented differently depending on the policy of each country, region, or city, it is a general theory that there is no concept that can be used universally. It can be said that the definition of smart cities appears slightly differently as each country or region has different ways of understanding smart cities depending on the problems, situations, conditions, and policy goals they face.

According to Ryu (2019), the definition of "smart city" can be generally said to be a city that not only develops technology and builds physical infrastructure, but also uses information and communication technology (ICT) to solve urban problems, improve urban competitiveness and quality of life for citizens, and pursue urban sustainability.

The British Standards Institution (BSI) defines smart city as “the effective integration of physical, digital and human systems in the built environment to deliver a sustainable, prosperous and inclusive future for it’s citizens (BSI, 2016).”

Meanwhile, the definition of OECD is as follows; Smart cities are defined as “initiatives or approaches that effectively leverage digitalisation to boost citizen well-being and deliver more efficient, sustainable and inclusive urban services and environments as part of a collaborative, multi-stakeholder process (OECD, 2019).”

The Korea Government defines smart city as follows; The term "smart city" means a sustainable city wherein various city services are provided based on city infrastructure constructed by converging and integrating construction technologies, information and communications technologies, etc. to enhance its competitiveness and livability. Similarly, the Indian government defines a smart city as a city that can provide public services, such as water and sewage, sanitation, and health, attract investment, transparent administration, business, and feels safe and happy for citizens feel safe and happy (KOR GOV, 2020).

Therefore, the Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (DBIS) in the UK said that “The concept is not static, there is no absolute definition of a smart city, no end point, but rather a process, or series of steps, by which cities become more 'liveable' and resilient and, hence, able to respond quicker to new challenges (DBIS, 2013).”

To sum up, Although the perspectives of developed, emerging, and developing countries differ depending on the situation facing each country, the purpose is to increase the efficiency of urban operation by actively utilizing or applying ICT, and to improve the quality of life by successfully solving urban problems.

3. 1. 2. Expanding smart city concepts

Meijer & Bolívar (2016) emphasizes that in order for a city to become smart, it is important for citizens to have the ability to monitor, understand, analyze, and plan what they need voluntarily. This has important implications for the direction of smart city governance. In addition, they classify the ideological definition of smart city into three main categories through literature research on smart city governance. 1) These include cities that use smart technology (technical focus), 2) cities with smart citizens (human resources focus), and 3) cities where smart collaboration is well conducted (governance focus).

Nam & Pardo (2011) expanded the concept of smart city by emphasizing the following three perspectives on the term ‘smart’. First, from a business perspective, ‘smart’ reflects the aspect of providing intelligent, customized services to customers, that is, citizens. Second, 'smart' reflects the implementation of strategic and efficient policies from the perspective of urban planning. Finally, from the technical point of view, 'smart' indicates that the city's enhanced capabilities are based on automated computing systems.

The Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (DBIS, 2013) in the UK expanded the concept of smart cities by emphasizing the following five main factors in the concept of smart cities. The five factors are as follows. First, a secure and open digital infrastructure that enables citizens to access the public data they need in a timely manner; second, a recognition that public service delivery needs to be improved citizen-centric; and third, an intelligent infrastructure that enables public service providers to access the information needed for overall quality management and strategic resource allocation; fourth, openness to absorb new cases and business models, and fifth, transparency that provides information for citizens to compare and evaluate city performance, institutions, etc.

3. 2. Components of smart city

The components highlighted in the definition of a smart city are not only necessary to understand the essence of a smart city, but also useful to show the difference between a smart city and other concepts. In addition, the definition of each smart city includes components that are similar to each other or different components depending on a theoretical point of view. Similar and different components found in the definitions of a smart city are necessary for an integrated and comprehensive understanding of the essence of a smart city.

Frost and Sullivan (2019) describe the components of a smart city as follows. The eight components of a smart city are (1) smart energy (smart grid, smart meter, intelligent energy storage method), (2) smart building (building automation, intelligent building), (3) smart mobility (advanced traffic management system, parking management, intelligent Transportation system-based public transportation pricing system), (4) Smart healthcare (use of telemedicine, intelligent and connected medical devices), (5) Smart infrastructure (sensor network, digital water and waste management), (6) Smart technology (4th generation mobile communication connection) , cutting-edge broadband, free Wi-Fi, 1Gbps download speed), (7) smart governance/education (e-government, e-education, disaster management solutions), and (8) smart citizens (using green transportation, smart lifestyle options).

Kourtit and Nijkamp (2012) regard smart cities as the result of knowledge-intensive and creative strategies to improve the socio-economic, ecological, logistical, and competitive performance of cities. They present four components that underlie smart cities. The four components that underlie smart cities are (1) human capital (skilled labor), (2) infrastructure capital (state-of-the-art information and communication technology facilities), (3) social capital (strong and open network connection), and ④ entrepreneurial capital (creative and risk-taking corporate strategy). They argue that smart cities should be supported by appropriate and reliable governance structures and creative people based on these components.

Van der Hoogen et al. (2019) presents six components by comprehensively analyzing the smart city type classification presented in previous studies. The six components of smart cities are: (1) smart economy (innovative spirit, entrepreneurship, economic image, trade mark, productivity, labor market flexibility, global exclusivity), (2) smart citizens (qualities, lifelong learning preferences, social and ethnic diversity, partnership and cooperation), (3) smart governance (participation in decision-making, public and social services, transparent governance), (4) smart environment (attraction of natural conditions, pollution, environmental protection, sustainable resource management, future use), (5) smart mobility (Local accessibility, global accessibility, sustainable, innovative, and safe transportation system), (6) smart living (cultural facilities, medical conditions, personal safety, housing quality, educational facilities, tourist attraction, social cohesion).

As such, various opinions are presented by scholars on the key elements of smart cities. In conclusion, it can be seen that the components of smart city are presented in various ways, such as not only the technological sector, but also the human resource sector, institutional sector, and innovative sector.

3. 3. How smart cities solve urban problems

Smart cities pursue different urban problem-solving methods than existing cities. According to Lee (2018), existing cities have sought and practiced various methods to solve numerous problems that occurred in urbanization, and a representative one was the solution through development. The problem of traffic congestion was solved by the construction of a new road, and expanding urban infrastructure such water supply and sewage was also a traditional problem-solving method. Hwang et al. (2013) describes the characteristics of smart cities in terms of solving urban problems compared to existing cities.

Meanwhile existing cities have mainly solved urban problems through the expansion of urban infrastructure, smart cities intend to solve urban problems by providing smart urban services. Whereas existing cities focused on building infrastructure in the city centering on government, construction companies, and corporate-centered suppliers, smart cities aim to provide services that meet the needs of users with citizens as the central axis.

Therefore, attempts were made to solve problems mainly in the physical space of the existing city, which had spatial and temporal limitations. In comparison, smart cities have the characteristics of breaking free from spatial and temporal constraints by including cyberspace. Above all, if the main factors that determine the quality of a city were geographical location and physical basis, in smart cities, the presence or absence of smart services becomes a major factor in determining the quality of the city and furthermore, the quality of life of citizens living in the city.

For example, when urban problems arise, policies in existing cities apply large-scale investments to expand manpower or build additional physical infrastructure, while smart cities use problem-solving methods that maximize investment efficiency by providing information where necessary. Examples of various problem-solving methods in smart cities and existing cities are shown in the following table.

< Table 3-1. Examples of solving problems in smart city >

Category	How existing city responds	How smart city responds
Traffic congestion	Road expansion or new road construction	-Delivery information of congested road to drivers in real time to induce them to detour -Inducing smooth vehicle flow by controlling traffic signals according to real-time traffic volume
Parking problem	New parking lot construction	- Delivery of empty parking spaces in real time -Inducing the use of public transportation with advance demand forecasting information based on city event information or weather condition information - Minimisation vehicle entry into the city center by using services such as car sharing
Water and Sewage	Impossible to acquire information on water and sewage leakage points	-Prompt action by receiving the leak point sensor - Estimation of leakage area based on long-term aging through integration of water and sewage installation points and geological information
Trash	Periodic collection	- Monitor emissions through trash sensor and collecting when they are full
streetlight	Illuminated for a certain time in the evening	Illuminated only if people are approaching streetlights through the sensor

Source: Joint of Ministries in Korea (2018)

Chapter 4: Smart City Policy in Republic of Korea

4. 1. Executioners

According to the Korean Smart Cities Special Committee (2018), the 4th Industrial Revolution Committee is located at the top of Korea's smart city policy. In order to use the overall process of change of the 4th Industrial Revolution as an opportunity for a national change of direction, the Korean government organized this presidential committee in 2017. This committee serves as an independent control tower to present a national response strategy for the 4th industrial revolution and lead integrated discussions among ministries, such as major policies for each department, fostering new industries, and creating R&D outcomes. Korean Smart City Special Committee was launched in 2017 as a subdivision of the 4th Industrial Revolution Committee.

Six government ministries, including the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport and the Ministry of Science and ICT, are participating in the Smart City Special Committee. In addition, industry including telecommunication, urban engineering, design and electricity fields, academia including data and ICT fields, and civic groups including environment and energy fields participate in providing advice on smart city-related systems and policies. The current status of smart city projects by each ministry is shown in the following table, and based on this, the Korean government announced the Smart City Policy Roadmap. The following table shows the roles of each ministry according to the roadmap.

< Table 4-1. Policy Implementation Status by Government Department>

Ministry	Main Role	Current projects for local governments
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport	- Overall coordination of smart city policies -Building physical infrastructure, developing services -Smart city-related policy deliberations and adjustments -Coordination of opinions between the central and local governments	-Spread of Integrated Platform for Urban Operation -Discover new services linked to new technologies -Self-driving, Energy-Standing Building, Data Hub City Operation
Ministry of Science and ICT	-Science and technology prediction and problem analysis related to smart city -Demonstration of core technologies in information and communication infrastructure	-IoT Demonstration Project spreads to Other Local Governments -Discover new transportation, environment and safety services -Smart trash cans, streetlights, parking
Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy	Energy Infrastructure Construction Project	-Smart Meter -Energy Management System -Electric Vehicle Energy Storage -Expansion of distributed power supply for new and renewable future
Ministry of Environment	Expansion of water resources and electric vehicle businesses	-Creating a Water Circulation City -Smart Water and Sewerage -Supply of electric vehicles and charging infrastructure -Measurement of fine dust and provision of information
Ministry of Public Administration and Security	E-Government operation, public data opening and use	-CCTV security service -AI-based Bulky Waste Disposal -Selection and opening of 20 national key data
Ministry of Strategy and Finance	-Establishment of budget principles related to smart city promotion -Project budget allocation -Private investment attraction	-Promoting leading projects and grafting new technologies -Establishment of pilot city strategy and support for publicity expenses

Source: Korean Smart Cities Special Committee (2018)

4. 2. Action plan

In 2008, Korea enacted the ‘ACT ON THE CONSTRUCTION, ETC. OF UBIQUITOUS CITIES' and took the first step toward smart cities. Ubiquitous is a Latin word that means it exists anytime, anywhere, and is a term that referred to early smart cities in Korea and Japan. In this Act, there are regulations on the planning, construction, management, and operation of U-City, as well as regulations on the establishment of national committees, support measures, standardization, etc., which played a decisive role in the early implementation of the smart city. According to the 1st and 2nd Comprehensive Ubiquitous City Plans established by this Act, a national master plan was presented, and various R&D tasks and human resources training projects were carried out (KOR Gov, 2018a).

U-city focused on building a physical infrastructure with the purpose of building and utilizing urban infrastructure using ICT for newly constructed cities. Since then, in the 2010s, it was promoted to promote the construction and utilization of infrastructure-based services in old cities as well as new cities with the goal of improving the quality of life of citizens. As a result, a full-scale smart city policy began to be promoted.

The Korean government evaluated that past U-city policies were not successful (KOR GOV, 2018b). For example, when building a new city, the technologies that are applied were not a choice for citizens because the supplier decided what services to provide. And after the construction of the city was completed, it became an outdated technology. In other words, it was judged that the initiative was lost in Europe and China due to the failure of market creation mainly due to public development and a piecemeal approach centered on technology.

Based on reflection on past policies, in 2018, the Korean government announced the Smart City Promotion Strategy, and selected Sejong City and Busan City as national pilot cities (KOR GOV, 2018b). In addition, a roadmap for smart city promotion strategies aimed at 2018 to 2022 has been announced. According to this plan, more than 20 different types of smart cities will be created nationwide considering urban characteristics and growth stages.

In this plan, seven innovation strategies were presented to transform into a people-centered open city in which various consumers such as private companies and citizens participate, away from the technology-oriented piecemeal approach and public-led smart city policy. The seven smart city innovation strategies including (1) people-centered cities, (2) cities that can foster innovative growth engines, (3) cities that provide services consumers can feel, (5) platform cities that pursue sustainability, (6) open cities involving citizens, (7) cities where related policies and projects of each department are combined were presented (Korean Smart Cities Special Committee, 2018).

< Figure 4-1. Innovation Strategies in Smart City in Korea>

In particular, what the Korean government emphasizes is to approach smart cities by stage of growth in cities. In other words, Korea promotes differentiated policies and projects according to the stage of new urban development, urban operation, and decline.

4. 3. Urban development stage: National demonstration city development

According to Government (KOR GOV, 2018b), Korea proposed a pilot city to test and commercialize the convergence new technology of the 4th Industrial Revolution in newly developed cities. The Korean government judged that it was difficult to apply technology and services to existing cities, where regulations exist and require agreement among various authorities. Accordingly, the Korean government selected Sejong City and Busan City as test beds where new technologies such as AI, digital twin, and IoT can be freely applied in a blank state.

In order for the national pilot city to be developed as a world-class smart city within five years, the Korean government will promote private investment through drastic regulatory reform such as a regulatory sandbox, intensify government R&D and policy budget, review smart city infrastructure, and promote citizen participation. On the other hand, it said that it will proceed with the method of receiving proposals so that various ideas of local governments, companies, and universities can be implemented as a pilot city.

In national pilot cities, large-scale projects that require the demonstration of innovative technologies and smart services closely related to life are being carried out at the same time. These services in the city are being built under policy governance that can link each department's policy projects and technology development based on the central government's full financial, administrative, and institutional support. In addition, based on the experience of the national pilot city, it plans to graft and spread the technologies commercialized in the pilot city to the third new city to be built in the future.

Sejong City is planning to provide urban living services using new technologies in healthcare and transportation. In the healthcare field, citizens' health status is monitored in real time and sent to their doctors to enable telemedicine. Sejong City introduces shared cars and autonomous buses for smart transportation to create a public transportation-oriented complex. In addition, transportation systems using artificial intelligence are introduced to efficient traffic management, and smart techniques such as smart crosswalks, automatic control streetlights, and safety school zones are applied. Cutting-edge futuristic cars such as electric vehicles and hydrogen cars will be used as test beds as well (KOR GOV, 2018c).

Busan City introduces a smart water purification system as a water environment sector to provide clear water, increases the reuse rate of water, and applies fine dust reduction. In addition, it plans to introduce an intelligent CCTV installation, sinkhole and earthquake detection through ground monitoring, school zone installation, and flood integrated management system to pursue a city safe from disasters and crimes. In the living and cultural sector, it plans to create a city with good living and fun by creating healthcare, smart education, smart garbage collection, smart garden and shopping, and cultural specialties (KOR GOV, 2018d).

4. 4. Urban operation stage: scale up

The Korean government will also promote strategies to upgrade existing cities smartly (KOR GOV 2018a). The smart challenge project, which has been in progress since 2019, is a type of project that benchmarks the Smart City Challenge of the United States and the Horizon 2020 project in Europe. In order to transform the existing city into a smart city, the project aims to induce active participation of local governments, private companies, and citizens to discover problems facing the region and solve urban problems by selecting policy measures optimized for the local situation.

As it has been pointed out that the smart city policy of the Korean government has failed to induce private companies to participate, the smart challenge project supports subsidies by combining local governments and companies. According to Korea Government, 1.5 billion KRW will be provided as project expenses for preliminary projects selected through a competitive public offering, and 20 billion KRW will be subsidised for projects that pass the follow-up evaluation two years later. As of 2020, 18 projects are being selected as preliminary projects.

According to Kim et al. (2020), the most widely supplied service area is tourism. Majority of local governments aim to revitalize local commercial districts by attracting tourists with the theme of strengthening regional competitiveness, so the concentration of services in the tourism sector is remarkable.

For example, Gongju City is promoting a Smart Open Museum project under the theme of Smart World Heritage City where visitors can experience the old city center through location-based extended reality services (Kim et al., 2020). Gimhae City plans to provide historical experience programs using augmented reality, virtual reality.

4. 5. Urban decline stage: urban regeneration using smart city

Smart city-type urban regeneration will be promoted in old downtown areas. This policy aims to make underdeveloped areas smart by introducing and utilizing high-efficiency smart city functions in places where populations and businesses decrease and old buildings increase. The goal is to select and implement more than 25 sites by 2022, and 7 sites have completed the establishment of urban regeneration revitalization plans (Kim et al., 2020). This project allows local governments to choose the smart city service fields and technologies currently commercialized as necessary, and the central government provides guidelines. To this end, the central government provides 3 billion KRW in subsidies for each local government.

The goal of the urban regeneration project is to improve the quality of life of local residents and prosper the local economy by infusing vitality into underdeveloped areas. Therefore, smart urban regeneration projects are also concentrated in the fields of labor and employment to revitalize the local economy.

For example, Bupyeong city makes data and analyzes the floating population of the local commercial area and reflects it in economic policies, or builds a community platform that supports information sharing and brand promotion among merchants so that merchants can revitalize the commercial area themselves. In addition, Pohang City has created a youth start-up hub to rent a space for young people to start a business related to smart technology and provide education to solve youth unemployment (Kim et al., 2020).

4. 6. Representative case: Sejong City

4. 6. 1. Aim and services

As a national pilot city, Sejong City has the advantage of being suitable for the world's best low-cost and high-efficiency national pilot smart city plan by boldly introducing mobility, energy, and cutting-edge technology to a blank site. According to the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport, 1.5 trillion KRW will be invested in Sejong City for three years from 2019 (KOR GOV, 2018c). In order to realize the goal of "a sustainable platform city that enhances citizens' happiness and provides creative opportunities," Sejong City has discovered services in seven innovative fields such as mobility, healthcare, energy, environment, governance, cultural shopping, and jobs. These services are being promoted in connection with urban planning and infrastructure planning.

According to Sejong City's plan, in the field of mobility, autonomous driving technology and smart transportation systems will be used to realize citiy with short commuting hours (Sejong Local Gov, 2019). It will also apply new technologies to energy and environmental fields such as monitoring fine dust, installing urban air purifiers, and establishing public transportation systems using electric vehicles. In order to realize a smart administration that quickly reflects public opinion, Sejong City plans to hold hackathon contests regularly and to turn the entire city into a living lab. Sejong City also plans to connect residents and artists with applications in advance so that cultural performances can be continued.

4. 6. 2. Building infrastructures with the latest technology

Sejong City manages city infrastructure, including traffic and security, in an integrated CCTV control center. In addition, 23km circular public transportation road surrounding the city has been built and operated, and an underground tunnel for power, communication, water supply, and heating has been installed. A large-scale tunnel that automatically collects household waste and food waste has also been built.

In addition, Sejong City is preparing to build a smart infrastructure to accept new technologies by 2023. It aims to provide public Wi-Fi to citizens by installing 10 Giga byte self-communication network and realize IoT. Comprehensive information is provided for the development of autonomous vehicles in the future by preparing a road precision map. Sejong City is pushing for a smart city specialized in mobility and zero energy, so intelligent infrastructure such as autonomous driving distance and smart crosswalks will be expanded in the future.

Sejong City will establish a 3D-based smart city sharing platform as a communication channel between citizens, public and private companies, and promote urban operation of communication and collaboration based on spatial information. Sejong City is also planning to build a system where citizens can participate in solving urban problems by always accessing the mobile app, uploading urban problems on an open platform, and sharing them with others. In addition, it is possible to simulate various scenarios such as the impact of specific development plans on the surrounding environment during the urban planning process, so citizens and specialists can cooperate. For example, in the urban planning process, various scenarios such as the impact of a specific development plan on the surrounding environment (infringement of sunlight, population change) can be simulated, thereby guaranteeing the rights and interests of citizens.

4. 6. 3. Limitations

It is pointed out that the pilot district to be built in Sejong City lacks the specifics of the project despite the full administrative and financial support of the Korean government (Kim et al., 2020). According to the original plan, construction of the city should have been completed by 2021 and residents should have started moving in. However, it is difficult to grasp the reality of the project as almost the implementation projects are at the 50% level. Only technologies and blueprints to be used in smart city projects are presented, and it is unclear what services will be provided to citizens by period.

Criticism is also raised over the lack of civic participation in the policy-making process. According to an analysis by the Local Administration Research Institute, the number of citizens who can participate in Living Lab is set at 40, so the majority of citizens have a limited path to participate in decision-making. Various ideas are being conspired, but it is unclear whether they are actually reflected in the policy.

Chapter 5: Smart City Policy in EU

5.1. Action plan

The EU is promoting smart city policies across Europe centering on the European Council (EC). The EC's departure from smart cities is closely related to climate change response (Jung et al., 2021). The EC announced the 'Energy 2020' strategy to respond to climate change in 2010, and as detailed policy tasks, (1) improvement of energy efficiency in Europe, (2) establishment of an integrated energy market, (3) stable energy supply, (4) energy technology and securing the EU's leading position in innovation and (5) strengthening the external aspects of the EU energy market.

Among the detailed policy tasks, the 'Smart Cities Innovation Partnership' was proposed in the fourth energy-related task, and as a result, the European Innovation Partnership on Smart Cities and Communities (EIP-SCC) was launched in July 2012. As such, since the European smart city plan started in the energy sector to respond to climate change, the service solutions of the European smart city so far largely reflect this aspect.

EIP-SCC announced the Strategic Implementation Plan in 2013, and this strategy has been working as a guideline for all smart cities in Europe to date (European Commission, 2013). In this strategy, the goals of the smart city are (1) Sustainable Urban Mobility, (2) Sustainable Districts & Built Environment, (3) Integrated Infra. and Process across Energy, ICT and Transport (European Commission, 2013).

< Figure 5-1. Smart City Action Plan in EU >

Source: European Commission (2013)

As a practical measure for this, first, in the field of decision-making, strengthening citizen participation, improvement of policies and regulations to accelerate innovation, and integration between disconnected sectors and administrative departments were suggested. Second, to strengthen insight, sharing of knowledge and experience, development of performance diagnosis indicators, establishment of open data, and standardization for dissemination were proposed. Third, measures such as business model establishment, public procurement and funding were suggested to secure financial resources.

5. 2. Financial resources

The EC places importance on financing as well as governance aspects such as citizen participation. As for the solution finance for smart cities in Europe, 28% is public initiative, 32% is public and private cooperation, and 24% is led by the private sector, showing that the public role is still more important than the private sector (EC, 2016). However, since the budget held by the public sector has a limit in the smart city promotion strategy, the need for a market-oriented and sustainable financing strategy through cooperation with the private sector and external investment attraction strategy is emphasized. Therefore, it stipulates the need to develop a funding model centered on the governance system such as industry, government, and citizens.

In addition, the EC also suggests guidelines that individual single cities should reinforce external investment incentives through smart city solutions and corporate nurturing that can be applied at a global level. In other words, public funding has to be a priority in initial smart city investment, but in the long run, it is recognized that there is a high need to develop business models and financing models to secure funds necessary for smart city promotion.

The public finance for the smart city promotion strategy utilized the empirical project budget of Horizon 2020 (hereafter ‘H2020’), the EU’s Research & Innovation program. H2020 is a program that invests a total of 77 billion EUR from 2014 to 2020. H2020 aims to maximize high market potential in each field by supporting mainly in the energy, transportation, and ICT sectors and integrating technology to complete a commercial-scale solution (Jung et al., 2021).

According to EC (2017), H2020 is a program to realize the European 2020 flagship initiative with the aim of securing global competitiveness in Europe, strengthening excellent science competitiveness, and solving social problems. To achieve these goals, Excellent Science, Industrial Leadership, and Social Challenge were set as tasks. The smart city task is mainly being promoted in the energy and transportation sectors.

As of July 2018, a total of more than 300 million EUR has been invested in 12 projects related to smart city demonstration. The investment amount is mainly to realize the 11th goal of the 2030 Agenda for reducing greenhouse gas emissions according to the Paris Agreement, which aims to realize “Creating Inclusive, Safe, Resilient and Sustainable Cities”.

5.3. Measurement and demonstration of performance

In the Horizon 2020 SCC project, a measurable and quantified performance standard called ‘Urban Challenge’ has been established. For example, the Urban Challenge performance criteria of the Grow Smarter project are (1) reduction energy consumption by 70-90% in an area of 100,000 square meters through energy efficiency of existing buildings (2) reduction of more than 60% of air pollutants through smart grids and biofuel utilization of household waste (Jung et al., 2021).

Verification of empirical performance is carried out through the European smart city performance evaluation system called CITYkeys. CITYkeys is a kind of evaluation system developed to measure the performance of smart city projects promoted at the EU level, and consists of five major categories: people, local environment, economic growth, governance, and diffusion (Bosch et al., 2017). Detailed evaluation indicators are presented for each classification The light house project, a smart city diffusion program, also conducts performance evaluation through CITYkeys, and latecomers will be able to apply proven solutions.

In addition, among various autonomous innovation demonstration methods, a living lab method that promotes PPPP (Public Private, People Partnership) is used, and each living lab establishes a network called European Network of Living Lab (ENoLL) for knowledge sharing and connection and of living labs. Local governments and global companies are also actively participating in ENoLL.

5. 4. The way of scale up

The EU has designated certain smart city projects in H2020 as 'Smart Cities Lighthouse' in order to maximize the expansion of the smart city industrial market. The EU has invested a total of 500 million euros in 12 lighthouse city projects from 2013 to August 2018. The lighthouse city project does not simply end with demonstration, and the solutions of the successful lighthouse project are spread out to follower cities (Go et al., 2019).

When proposing a lighthouse city project, lighthouse cities and follower cities are jointly participating, and in the case of lighthouse cities, most of the funds are supported by the Horizon 2020 fund because they play a role in experimenting and verifying solutions. In the case of follower cities, a relatively small proportion of funding is supported by Horizon 2020 because it is a method of introducing solutions that have already been verified. Looking at the proportion of financial resources, it can be seen that about 90% of the input resources in lighthouse cities are supported by Horizone 2020, and about 10% in subsequent cities.

A project that combines a lighthouse city and a subsequent city expands the regional scale by sharing successful solutions and utilizing the shared solutions. Through this, a method of promoting the creation of an integrated solution in the commercialization stage in the long term is adopted. Looking at the contents, a total of 36 cities are currently participating in the Lighthouse City project as a lighthouse city, and proven solutions are spread to follower cities. The expansion of the industrial market can also be expected through the scale-up of the solution target area.

5. 5. Representative case; Helsinki

5. 5. 1. Establishment of smart city project support organization

Helsinki is considered the most exemplary smart city in the world. In particular, Kalasatama, an old port area located northeast of Helsinki's city center, is currently regarded as the world's most active Living Lab with citizen participation. Helsinki has been promoting "Smart Kalasatama" since 2014 (City of Helsinki, 2016). The plan is to increase the number of residents in Kalasatama from 3,000 to 25,000 by 2035 by building various smart city infrastructures such as The Agile Piloting Program, Living Lab, and Innovator's Club.

The characteristic of the Agile Pilot Program and the Innovator’s Club is that they actively encourage companies and citizens to participate (FVH, 2020). This is playing a role in bridging the digital gap by increasing the understanding of private entities about the government's smart city project. In addition, it becomes possible to manage data integrally because the participation of various companies is based on the government's platform. In this regard, these programs are cited as best practices.

<Resourc,  https://6aika.fi/en/what-is-6aika/)>

Helsinki established Forum Virium Helsinki (FVH), which leads public and private cooperation as a smart city project support organization under the city of Helsinki. FVH receives administrative and infrastructure support from the Helsinki local government and is funded by SITRA, a public foundation that raises the Finnish Innovation Fund.

In the early days of establishment, the focus was on technology development, but in response to the need for collaboration with private companies and local residents to solve public problems, the goal of the institution was to input an efficient budget for user-led service development and to establish a cooperative method. Since then, he has had various experiences related to civic participation and field-based service development by promoting active Living Lab projects. FVH is promoting the creation of the Kalasatama smart city, and is leading projects such as Helsinki Region Infoshare, Open Ajho, and Helsinki Loves Developers (City of Helsinki, 2018).

For the smart city project, FVH has built the entire process from initial idea to project completion in 7 stages. Processes such as researching development demand, understanding users, analyzing service demand, devising service and idea concepts, demonstrating development services, evaluating results, and reflecting results will be carried out one after another (FVH, 2018).

5. 5. 2. Implementation of pilot project to reduce carbon emission

Helsinki piloted a road cleaning robot to minimize the inconvenience of citizens and reduce carbon emissions in the process of beautifying the local environment. In cooperation with STARA, an urban environment beautification company, Helsinki is promoting the digitalization and automation of cleaning devices to increase the convenience of living for citizens. In April 2021, a cleaning robot was piloted in Jatkasaari, a test bed for smart transportation and residential environment, during the evening hours of weekdays when residents moved less (Shin et al.,2021). Helsinki has declared that it will achieve its carbon-neutral goal by 2035, and since the robot consumes only 15% of the energy consumption of existing road sweepers, it will help to achieve its goal. It can be evaluated as a pilot project with the meaning of converting fossil fuel-based public services into eco-friendly energy.

<Resource :Forum Virium Helsinki, Vesa Laitinen>

Helsinki also provides charging solution services to expand the supply of electric vehicles. An environment has been established where electric vehicle drivers can use all parking and charging services in an integrated way through a single platform without any special procedures (City of Helsinki, 2018). Since most electric vehicles require charging and parking at the same time, IoT equipment and interface standards have been established for linking parking spaces and charging information.

<Resource :Forum Virium Helsinki>

Not only that, Helsinki is also working on a digital twin project that transfers the appearance of a real city to a virtual world (Shin et al.,2021). A digital twin is a combination of data and information representing the structure, context, and operation of various physical systems, and can be said to be an interface that can predict the future through understanding the past and present operational status. It is expected that other innovative smart city services will be created by opening various data created from digital twins to businesses and citizens. For example, services that evaluate the suitability of new high-rise building construction by analyzing wind direction in the virtual world are being reviewed. In this regard, the city of Helsinki is actively using digital twins to check efficiently urban problems in advance.

5. 5. 3. Encouraging citizens and businesses to participate

Kalasatama offers the Kalasatama Urban Lab, where citizens and businesses can conduct workshops. Smart city services can be effectively tested using various digital devices such as 3D modeling by using this living lab (FVH, 2020). Kalasatama is also operating a super flexi-space living lab program that allows users to rent facilities such as schools and offices to become shared spaces.  Recently, an eco-friendly city-building project named The Healthy Liveable Neighborhood, a drone delivery project called Drone-as-a-service, and a last mile delivery project named Home-on-Demand are waiting for citizens and companies to participate.

Chapter 6: Smart City Policy in the UK

6. 1. Executioners

According to the Smart City Framework – Guide to Establishing Strategies for smart cities and communities published in 2014 by the British Standards Institution (BSI), the UK government is pursuing smart city policies as a means of coping with population growth and local government fiscal deterioration (BSI, 2014).

First, as a population-related issue, the urban infrastructure growth is slow, while the rapid increase in the urban population is placing a burden on the city's housing and transportation. Second, with regard to the efficient use of resources, the continuous burden on public funds causes budget cuts by city authorities. Local governments tend to be overly dependent on the central government for their budgets because grants from the central government are a major source of funding for local government budgets.

The UK government established the Technology Strategy Board (TSB) in 2007 to effectively implement smart city policies. In 2011, it launched a community that expanded into a European network for the development of smart cities. The European Innovation Partnership on Smart Cities and Communities (EIPSCC) has more than 4,000 participants from cities, banks, businesses, institutions and organizations from 31 countries (Jung et al., 2020). The role of the community is to support the development of new technologies by matching and investing in various smart city projects for each city.

Since then, TSB was changed to Innovate UK, a Non-Departmental Public Body (NDPB) under the Department for Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy (BEIS) through government reorganization. Innovate UK is playing a role in preparing strategies to revitalize new industries, promoting various science and technology investments, and operating R&D funding programs.

Meanwhile, in 2013, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (DBIS), the predecessor of BEIS, established Future City Catapult (FCC) to support promising businesses in the future. The FCC, which was created by gathering various experts such as city experts, data engineers, designers, etc., is a private supports project investment, innovation, idea provision, and related technologies for urban development.

6. 2. The Future Cities Demonstrator Competition

In 2013, TSB held the Future Cities Demonstrator Competition, which provides up to 45 million GBP to excellent local governments selected through the proposal contest, drawing participation from local governments. The initial plan was to provide an opportunity to select 20 cities to raise funds, but because more than 50 cities participated in the contest and many impressive plans were proposed, it was expanded to provide 50,000 GBP to 30 cities for feasibility studies and pilot city proposals. Through the second phase of the proposal, 29 feasibility study reports and 26 pilot city proposals were submitted, and Glasgow was selected as the final pilot project area and it was decided that it would receive 24 million GBP (UK GOV, 2013). In addition, Bristol, London, and Peterborough were selected as excellent areas and received 3 million GBP.

TSB published the ‘Solutions for Cities: Analysis of the Feasibility Studies from the Future Cities Demonstrator Programme’ by analyzing the feasibility study reports and proposals submitted through the Future Cities Demonstrator Competition (TSB, 2013). This report was used as a basis for fostering new industries by providing companies with basic information for building smart cities by sharing the problems and concerns of British cities discovered through the contest.

The UK's Smart City project not only selected and supported excellent cities, but also made more efforts to continuously attract private and public investment. A good example is the Smart London Innovation Network, which attracts investment through cooperation with high-tech SMEs and local communities. This is because services designed for regional characteristics are funded and supported to carry out projects through these institutions that share information on various technologies and cases (Jung et al., 2020).

6. 3. Standardization to strengthen smart city competitiveness

The UK government's smart city policy is driven in the direction of support and incentives rather than regulation (Shin et al., 2016). This is because for the effective operation of smart cities, private high-tech and more flexible policies are required to apply them. The UK government has made efforts to standardize related technologies since 2012 with a goal of 10% of the global smart city market share.

In 2014, Department for Business, Innovation and Skills (BIS) transferred its authority to the British Standards Institute (BSI) to develop a standard strategy for smart cities in the UK. BSI has established The Cities Standards Institute with the FCC and is leading the smart city standardization work BSI is playing a leading role in smart city standardization through continuous exchanges with not only UK stakeholders but also ISO-based international standards stakeholders (Shin et al., 2016).

BSI presented a guide for establishing strategies for smart cities and communities through the PAS 181 Smart City Framework. In this guide, BSI presents a model for the Smart City Framework and summarizes the principles for promotion, governance and progression processes, strategic approaches, and success factors. For example, Strategic Clarity, Leadership, Collaborative governance, User focus, Stakeholder engineering, Achievable delivery, and Benefits realization were provided as checklists to support standardization and spread of smart city policies (BSI, 2014).

6. 4. Representative Examples: Bristol

6. 4. 1. ‘Bristol is open’

Bristol won the Smart City Award at the Global Mobile Awards hosted by the Global System for Mobile Communications Association (GSMA) in 2018. This city is considered one of the UK's success stories, leading the smart city market (GSMA, 2018).

In order to build a successful smart city, the Bristol City Council established a joint venture called "Bristol is open" with universities, small and medium-sized companies, large companies, and investors. It is an integrated platform that allows multiple projects to use the network at the same time through network virtualization and is useful for commercialization of technology without stopping in the R&D process (Bristol city council, 2019).

Bristol's representative examples of smart city technology application are as follows. Bristol City Council found a high proportion of deaths due to drowning in ports, in a survey of waterway fatalities from 2012 to 2017. To prevent more casualties, WIFI and 5G technologies were utilized to record water temperature changes that could indicate human presence after installing thermal imaging cameras which capture high-resolution. When a risk factor occurs, a virtual barrier was created at the designated trigger entry point to send a danger signal and prevent accidents in advance. As a result, the lives of citizens were saved using the installed cameras.

<Bristol Ten Key Climate Change Calls to Action, resource: Bristol council, 2019>

6. 4. 2. Voluntary participation of citizens

Bristol encourages local citizens to participate in these projects. Voluntary civic panels actively express opinions and form a community of local experts and artists to participate in practical projects. Opportunities for voluntary civic panels to participate in projects are provided through communities with local experts. Experiencing the actual commercialization process by participating in planning, development, and monitoring projects creates a greater sense of trust, responsibility, and achievement than public relations or advertising activities to raise awareness of smart cities.

The project to develop a sensor that detects moisture and humidity has engaged citizens and, as a result, has enabled citizens and city councils to effectively manage risks. The head of the project said that citizen participation helped make the product more suitable for its purpose.

A project to develop sensors that detect moisture and humidity involved citizens, resulting in effective risk management by citizens and city councils. The person in charge of the project said that the participation of citizens helps to make the product more suitable for the purpose. According to Cousins (2019), the foundation of this success was a city innovation team that developed the Bristol Data Dome to visualize real-time data, and a Bristol approach focused on citizen-centric solutions.

6. 4. 3. Bristol's One City Strategy

The UK government has set a low-carbon target by 2050 because climate change and energy poverty are considered one of the serious urban problems. Bristol officially declared a climate emergency through ‘Bristol one city’ and proposed ‘Bristol's One City Strategy’ for carbon neutral and climate resilience by 2030. Bristol has formed a cooperative with the energy network and is also focusing on the development of renewable energy through energy funds. According to Snell (2021), energy and climate issues are receiving international attention, so it is expected that Bristol's progressive attempt to share various cases can help many cities.

Bristol's climate change advisory body is operated in cooperation with local government, citizens, and external partners. When new facts are acquired through various cases, strategies are established based on them, and plans are delivered and implemented. The strategy established in this way is used when faced with a similar situation, and the strategy is modified and supplemented according to the result. After several implementations and discussions, it is divided into maintaining the existing method or attempting new development, and finally a standard is created to present the direction of the city. Bristol's case shows how citizens can achieve cooperative implementation through participation with a common goal.

<One City Climate Strategy UNSDG, Resource : Bristol One City, 2019>

Chapter 7: Comparison of policies

7. 1. Goals to be pursued

The core goals of smart city promotion in Korea and the EU are in line with international agendas such as improving the quality of life and sustainable growth, but the EU has a more specific goal of responding to the climate crisis. Therefore, most of the applied solutions are greenhouse gas reduction solutions related to climate crisis response.

In the case of Europe and the United Kingdom, they are faithful to the principle of solving urban problems, and the scope of recognizing the problem has also been expanded to the world, focusing on the response to the crisis of climate change. This is reflected in the empirical themes of 18 light house projects. All 18 groups are carrying out projects related to energy consumption reduction and greenhouse gas reduction in response to climate change (Jung et al., 2021).

This is different from the Korean smart city projects that are promoted for the purpose of providing smart city services on various topics such as convenience and safety. Major solutions applied to Korean smart cities have been mainly provided by crime prevention, disaster prevention, and transportation services. In the 11 services presented in Article 2 of Act on the Promotion of Smart City Development and Industry, energy services are classified as "environmental, energy, and water resources" service types, mixing the concepts of energy, efficiency, and environmental pollution management.

7. 2. Spreading policies through the selection of pilot cities

EU is conducting smart city demonstration projects for cities across Europe through the Lighthouses project. The Lighthouse project is characterized by dividing empirical cities into leading cities and late-stage cities. Literally, leading cities are responsible for creating successful cases by introducing smart city technologies and services first, and later cities are responsible for spreading results by applying verified technologies and services afterwards.

In Europe, the Light House project, called SCC1, is carried out by forming a consortium involving cities, universities, and research institutes to apply for the project. When smart city topics such as energy and transportation mobility are publicized, leading cities and late-stage cities are formed Subsequently, the action plan goes through a proposal process. Through this, the financial resources of the EIP-SCC program are provided to the selected consortium. By September 2019, 14 Lighthouse projects have been in operation, with a total of 40 leading cities and 53 late cities participating (Jung et al., 2021).

In the case of Korea, a new urban infrastructure is being established on a site with no development plan to provide public services using experimental and innovative technologies These services within the national pilot city are provided with full financial, administrative, and institutional support from the central government. According to the Korean government, about 2.4 trillion KRW in public funds (950 billion KRW in Sejong and 1.45 trillion KRW in Busan) were invested from 2019 to 2021 (KOR GOV, 2019). Based on this, new technologies will be applied and spread to new cities that will be built in the future (KOR GOV, 2018a).

The UK selected Glasgow as a pilot city through the world's first smart city contest. Since then, the UK has implemented policies such as reviewing the solution to the problems faced by each city and the possibility of linking pilot projects and sharing solutions through TSB. The central government is trying to promote local government participation and revitalize new industries based on the proposals they have presented (Lee et al., 2020). Local governments are playing a role in substantially creating smart cities by establishing customized strategies reflecting local situations and proposing services. In addition, local governments are continuing their efforts in various aspects, such as securing separate funds to carry out projects or linking them with industrial support such as Innovate UK.

7. 3. Implementation method

The EU and the UK are emphasizing private cooperation and civic participation in the process of promoting smart policies. For example, in the case of Helsinki and Bristol, local governments are promoting projects to solve urban problems in cooperation with private capital rather than large-scale investments by the state. In the process, citizens' opinions are actively collected and reflected in the project contents, which is characterized by high satisfaction of citizens (Jung, 2020).

On the other hand, smart cities in Korea were promoted in a top-down method centered on newly built cities implemented by the central government. Therefore, most of the financial resources were initially invested for the construction of large-scale infrastructure, and now, a method for expanding service solutions based on the infrastructure is being sought.

As a result, problems such as lack of financial resources occurred in declining cities and old downtown areas with many real urban problems. In addition, the difference in living conditions between the existing city and the new city was further widened. Smart cities, which have been promoted as a pilot project, are not competitive in the global market as they are only short-term support. The lack of representative success cases applied with various smart technologies is also pointed out as problems and limitations.

Chapter 8: Conclusion

This study investigated Europe, the UK, and Korea, which are representatively mentioned in relation to smart city policies. In particular, each country's plans, investment resources, performance standards, demonstrations, and industry promotion were investigated.

Since 2010, most countries have established and implemented smart city-related plans at the central government level. In Korea, smart city policies are being pursued with a large budget from the central government focusing on the construction of physical infrastructure. Contrastively, in Europe and the UK, there is also support from the central government, but rather, policies are being pursued in various directions such as performance standards, demonstration, and standardization based on citizen participation and the participation of private companies.

In general, Korea is promoting policies in the direction of establishing large-scale infrastructure in the initial stage and expanding service solutions based on this. On the other hand, Western countries such as Europe and the United Kingdom are approaching the city-to-city network that interconnects the accumulated individual solutions with an emphasis on demonstrating solutions for solving individual urban problems.

In addition, these countries are showing a form in which citizens participate and discover smart city solutions applicable to cities. This is being promoted in a way that solves social problems occurring in limited spaces such as communities or regions through the establishment of partnerships at all levels. To this end, data collected from cities and smart city technologies are combined to form a new service industry market based on innovative ideas. In this regard, each government is providing support in terms of financial, spatial, and institutional improvement.

The implications that can be derived from the results of comparing the policies of each country are as follows. The key to the success of smart city policies is to prepare follow-up measures to spread smart city performance, introduce an evaluation system for the current smart city project, build an integrated knowledge accumulation platform, expand private participation, and materialize policies to revitalize industries. In other words, the construction of a pilot city should be promoted to create a case to spread the technology and service to other cities in the future through the creation of successful cases, and it should provide opportunities for private sector companies to actively participate in the spread of technology and services. In addition, an evaluation system is needed for these projects to operate successfully, and ultimately, it must be spread through standardization of proven technologies and services.

This study proposed a policy direction for the spread of smart cities through case analysis, and specific detailed measures for each proposed policy need to be prepared for actual policy implementation. In addition, since the policy establishment cycle in the smart city field is short and changing rapidly, continuous evaluation and monitoring through follow-up research is required.

Reference Lists

Bosch, P., Jongeneel, S., Rovers, V., Neumann, H. M., Alraksinen, M., Huovila, A. (2017), CITYkeys Indicators for Smart City Projects and Smart Cities, European Commission

British Standards Institution (2014) Smart City Framework –Guide to establishing strategies for smart cities and communities

Bristol Council City (2019) “Connecting Bristol”

BSI (2014) PAS 181: Smart city framework. Guide to establishing strategies for smart cities and communities

BSI (2016) Making cities smarter guide for city leaders: Summary of PD 8100

City of Helsinki (2016) Helsinki City Plan

City of Helsinki (2018) Helsinki facts and figures 2018

Cousins, S. (2019) “Bristol: the UK’s first smart city?”, RICS, https://www.rics.org/uk/wbef/digital-transformation/the-uks-first-smart-city/

Das, D. (2019) ‘In pursuit of being smart? A critical analysis of India’s smart cities endeavor’, Urban Geography, DOI: 10.1080/02723638.2019.1646049

Deloitte. 2018. Super Smart City: Happier Society with Higher Quality

Department for Business Innovation & Skills (2013) SMART CITIES: BACKGROUND PAPER

European Commission (2013) European Innovation Partnership on smart cities and communities- strategic implementation plan. European Commission, Communication, Networks, Content and Technology Publications, Brussels: Belgium.

European Commission (2016) Analysing the potential for wide scale roll out of integrated Smart Citeis and Communities solutions: Final Report, European Commission, Brussels: Belgium.

European Commission (2017) Interim Evaluation of HORIZON 2020, European Commission, Brussels: Belgium.

Forum Virium Helsinki (2018) Recipes for agile pilots

Forum Virium Helsinki (2020) Pocket Book for Agile Piloting.

Frost & Sullivan (2019). Smart cities: Frost & Sullivan value proposition.

GSMA (2018) Announces Winners for 2018 GLOMO Awards

https://www.gsma.com/newsroom/press-release/gsma-announces-winners-2018-glomo-awards/

Green, B. (2019) The Smart Enough City: Putting Technology in its Place to Reclaim Our Urban Future, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts:

Go, J. H., Lee, J. H.,Kim, H. J. (2019) ‘A Study on European Smart City Model and Its Development Strategies’, The Korean Society Of Contemporary European Studies, vol. 5., 197-225

Hollands, R. G. (2008) ‘Will the real smart city please stand up? Intelligent, progressive or entrepreneurial?’, City 12(3), pp. 303~320.

Hwang, B. J., Kim, B. S., Lee, Y. J. (2013) ‘Proposes on Essential Ubiquitous City Service to Guarantee Minimum Quality of Ubiquitous City’, Journal of the Korean Society for Geospatial Information System, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 53-64

Hwang, J. S., Cha, J. P. (2013), The Trend and Implications of Smart Cities Overseas, National Information Society Agency, Seoul

ITU-T Focus Group on Smart Sustainable Cities (2014), Smart sustainable cities: An analysis of definitions

Jang, H. Y. (2017) ‘Policy Direction for Securing Smart City Competitiveness’, SH Urban Research & Insight, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 69-84

Joint of Ministries in Korea (2018a) Urban Innovation and Smart City Strategic Plan for Creation of Future Growth Engine.

Joint of Ministries in Korea (2018b) Contents Applied in Smart City National Pilot Project Proposed by Ministry.

Joint of Ministries in Korea (2018c) Master Plan for Sejong 5-1

Joint of Ministries in Korea (2018d) Master Plan for Busan EDC Smart City.

Jung, S. (2020) ‘Policy Direction Setting through Comparative Analysis of Foreign Smart City Policies’, Journal of the Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society, Vol. 21, No. 9 pp. 151-160

Jung, S. H, Kim, M. J. (2021) ‘EU Smart City Demonstration and Expansion by the Lighthouse Project’, LHI journal of land, housing, and urban affairs 12(2), 1-12

Jung, T., Suh, M. J. (2020) ‘The Future of Smart City through the Case of the UK’, Communications of the Korean Institute of Information Scientists and Engineers 38(6), 39-47

Kim, D. Y. (2021) ‘Smart Cities and Urban Ecosystem’, Smart City Global Journal

Kim, S. M., Lim, T. K. (2020) The Direction of Smart City Innovation Policy by Local Governments in Korea, Korea Research Institute for Local Administration

KOR GOV,  ACT ON THE PROMOTION OF SMART CITY DEVELOPMENT AND INDUSTRY (2020)

Korean Smart Cities Special Committee (2018), Roadmap for Smart city in Korea.

Kourtit, K., Nijkamp, P. (2012) ‘Smart cities in the innovation age’, European Journal of Social Science Research, 25(2), 93-95.

Lee, J. Y., Jang, H. Y., Lim, H. Y., (2012) ‘Research on Classification and Application Strategies of Ubiquitous City Constructions Targeting Old Towns’, Journal of Korean Urban Geographical Society, vol. 15, no. 3, pp. 117-132

Lee, J. Y., Kim, I. H. (2020), ‘Policies of Global Smart Cities’, Journal of Smart City Vol. 1, No. 1 (2020)

Lee, S. W., Bae, D.H., Kim, S. O, (2019) ‘A Critical Study on Smart City Governance: The Case of China’s Smart City Policies’, Space and Society, vol. 29, no. 4, 271-322

Meijer, A., Bolívar, M. (2016) ‘Governing the smart city: a review of the literature on smart urban governance’, International Review of Administrative Sciences. 82(2): 392–408.

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport in Korea (2019) The 3rd Comprehensive Plan for Smart Cities

Nam, T., Pardo, T. A. (2011). ‘Smart city as urban innovation with dimensions of technology, people and institutions’, Proceedings of the 5th international conference on theory and practice of electronic governance (5), p.p. 185-194.

OECD (2019) 1st OECD Roundtable on Smart Cities and Inclusive Growth, pp. 3.

Pineda, V. S. (2021) ‘The Future is Accessible: Accelerating Inclusive Digital Transformation into Post-Pandemic Cities’, Smart City Global Journal

Ryu, S. Y., Lee, J. W. (2019) ‘A Governance Approach for the Sustainable Smart City’, Journal of the Korean Urban Management Association 32(3), 81-96

Sejong City (2019) Smart City Strategic Plan in Sejong

Shin, W. J., Cho, Y. T. (2016) ‘The British Government's Smart City Construction Efforts and Implications’, PLANNING AND POLICY vol. 415, p.p. 86-92

Shin, W. J., Lee, S. H (2021) A Study on the Competitiveness Enhancement of Smart Cities in Seoul, Seoul digital foundation

Snell, J. (2021) ‘How has 2020 Covid 19 Impacted Smart City Development?’, Smart City Global Journal 2021

Townsend, A. M. (2013) Smart Cites: Big Data, Civic Hackers, and the Quest for a New Utopia, W. W. Norton & Company, New York and London

TSB, 2013, Solutions for Cities: An analysis of the feasibility studies from the Future Cities Demonstrator Programme (https://www.arup.com/-/media/arup/files/publications/s/solutionsforcitiesananalysisofthefeasibilitystudiesfromthefuturecitiesdemonstratorprogramme.pdf)

UN, World Urbanization Prospects: The 2018 Revision 9-14

UK GOV (2013) £24 million investment will make Glasgow a city of the future

https://www.gov.uk/government/news/24-million-investment-will-make-glasgow-a-city-of-the-future

Van der Hoogen, A., Scholtz, B., Calitz, A. (2019) ‘A smart city stakeholder classification model’, 2019 Conference on Information Communications Technology and Society (ICTAS), 1-6. IEEE.

Vanolo, A. (2014) ‘Smartmentality: The smart city as disciplinary strategy’, Urban Studies, 51(5), pp. 883~898.

Vilariño, F. (2021) ‘Living Labs as Social Technologies for the Smart Cities and Communities’, Smart City Global Journal

Wiig, A. (2015) ‘IBM’s smart city as techno-utopian policy mobility’, City 19(2-3), pp.258~273.

_____. (2016) ‘The empty rhetoric of the smart city: from digital inclusion to economic promotion in Philadelphia’, Urban Geography 37(4), pp. 535~553.

Lee, J. J. (2019) ‘Aging society, economic growth prospects and countermeasures’, KDI Policy Forum. 2019(4)

Kim, J. R. (2019) ‘Japan's aging response policy’ 2019, Health Insurance Review & Assessment Service, 13(3), pp.98-113

Roh, D. M., Baek, H. Y., Kim, M. J., Jang, I. S., Han, S. H. (2017) A Comparative Study on Social Security Policy in Asia. Sejong City : Korea Institute for health and social affairs

Korean National Assembly Budget Office. (2017) ‘Changes in Population Structure and Social Safety Net Policy Analysis’. Available at : https://www.nabo.go.kr/Sub/01Report/recent_ajaxBoard.jsp?bid=19&item_id=7289&arg_id=7289&funcSUB=view (Accessed 21 Dec 2020)

Lee, K.H. (2018). ‘The Changing Population Structures and Policies in Korea, China, and Japan’, pp.33-57. Available at :  https://www.kihasa.re.kr/common/filedown.do?seq=40634

Joo, B. H, Im, J. M., Roh, B. R., Shin, Y. K., Im, S. A., Jeong, H. S. (2019) ‘An Analysis of the Policy of Aging Response in International Organizations and Major Pre-Experienced Countries’. Sejong City : Korea Institute for health and social affairs

4th Basic Plan for Low Birthrate and Aging Society, Korean Government. Available at :  https://www.betterfuture.go.kr/front/notificationSpace/pressReleaseDetail.do?articleId=117

Ewha Women University Industry-Academic Cooperation Group. (2020) Aging Policy by Age in Major Countries. Seoul City : Ewha Women University

Kim, W. S., Choi, O. K., Choi, I. D. (2019) A Study on the Supply and Demand Requirements of Public Old Age Income Security System in Major Countries. Seoul City : Korean National Assembly Budget Office

Korea National Assembly Budget Office. (2020) Population Change and Social Safety Countermeasures Network Policy Analysis. Seoul City : Korean National Assembly Budget Office

Korea National Assembly Budget Office. (2017) An Analysis of Measures to Expand Labor Base for Middle-aged and Elderly. Seoul City : Korean National Assembly Budget Office

Korea Communications Commission. (2011a) Access to Social Media and Plans for the Diffusion of Their Productive Uses. Seoul City : Korea Communications Commission

KT's Economic Management Institute. (2020a) 2020 Social Media Status and Prospect. Available at : https://www.kdi.re.kr/policy/publication2_view.jsp?idx=153700&pp=10&type=304&tcate=1&pg=1 (Accessed 6 Jan 2021)

John, J., Kim, S., Kim, H., Shuangling, X., Kim, S.T. (2019a) ‘The Impacts of SNS Uses on Off-line Political Participation: Focusing on Moderating Effects of SNS Reading and Writing’, Peace Studies, 27(1), pp. 169-205

Korea National Assembly Research Service. (2017a) The Spread of Civic Participation-type Politics and the Reform of Party Politics Seoul City : Korea National Assembly

Lee, D.H. (2017b) ‘The Constitutional Meaning of A Candlelight Assembly In Social Media Society - centering on the Right of Network access’, Public Law Journal 18(2), pp.3-24

Hong, J.H. (2020c) ‘The Constitutional Meaning of A Candlelight Assembly In Social Media Society - centering on the Right of Network access’, Public Law Journal 18(2), pp.3-24

Dudden, A. (2017c) ‘Revolution by Candlelight: How South Koreans Toppled a Government’, Available at : https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/revolution-by-candlelight-how-south-koreans-toppled-a-government  (Accessed 6 Jan 2021)

Lee, W.T., (2011b) ‘The light and shadow of social media politics’, History that opens tomorrow(45), pp.105-133

Kang, M.H. (2016) ‘"Blame your parents. Money is also power" Jung Yu-ra's SNS 'controversy'’, The Nocut news, 11 Nov. Available at :  https://www.nocutnews.co.kr/news/4671310 (Accessed 6 Jan 2021)

Lee, K.I. (2019b) ‘Constitutional Review of Fake news Regulation in the Era of Social Networks’, Public Law Journal 20(1), pp.81-109

Yang, Y.K. (2019c) ‘How did Facebook cause genocide?’, Money today, 20 Nov. Available at : https://news.mt.co.kr/mtview.php?no=2019112014181879120 (Accessed 7 Jan 2021)

Lee, J.S, Jung, H.W. (2020d) ‘The Oppression of the Rohingya people by the Myanmar"s Military and its Countermeasures’, Korean Journal of Social Science 39(1), pp. 159-202

Guardian (2016a) “Myanmar Seeking Ethnic Cleansing, Says UN Official as Rohingya Flee Persecution.” 24 Nov. Available at : https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/24/rohingya-flee-to-bangladesh-to-escape-myanmar-military-strikes

Newsmin (2018a) ‘Rohingya's tragedy and Facebook's irresponsibility’  19 Sept.  Available at : http://www.newsmin.co.kr/news/33490/ (Accessed 7 Jan 2021)

BBC Korea (2018b) ‘Social Media: The tragedy that Facebook brought to Myanmar’  14 Sept.  Available at : https://www.bbc.com/korean/international-45505344 (Accessed 7 Jan 2021)

Guardian (2018c) “Facebook removes accounts associated with Myanmar military”, 27 Aug. Available at : https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/aug/27/facebook-removes-accounts-myanmar-military-un-report-genocide-rohingya (Accessed 7 Jan 2021)

Frenkel, S. (2021a) ‘The storming of Capitol Hill was organized on social media’, The Ny Times, 1 Jan. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/06/us/politics/protesters-storm-capitol-hill-building.html (Accessed 9 Jan 2021)

Twitter.com, Available at : https://twitter.com/TwitterSafety/status/1347684877634838528

Park, S.W. (2014) ‘Why does the political polarization continue in SNS?’ Social Science Research Review 30(1), pp.235-252

Kang, J.M. (2016b) ‘The Institutionalization of Hypocrisy Destructed by Media Revolution’, Discourse and Policy in Social Science 9(2), pp.85-115

Lee, J. J. (2019) ‘Aging society, economic growth prospects and countermeasures’, KDI Policy Forum. 2019(4)

Kim, J. R. (2019) ‘Japan's aging response policy’ 2019, Health Insurance Review & Assessment Service, 13(3), pp.98-113

Roh, D. M., Baek, H. Y., Kim, M. J., Jang, I. S., Han, S. H. (2017) A Comparative Study on Social Security Policy in Asia. Sejong City : Korea Institute for health and social affairs

Korean National Assembly Budget Office. (2017) ‘Changes in Population Structure and Social Safety Net Policy Analysis’. Available at : https://www.nabo.go.kr/Sub/01Report/recent_ajaxBoard.jsp?bid=19&item_id=7289&arg_id=7289&funcSUB=view (Accessed 21 Dec 2020)

Lee, K.H. (2018). ‘The Changing Population Structures and Policies in Korea, China, and Japan’, pp.33-57. Available at :  https://www.kihasa.re.kr/common/filedown.do?seq=40634

Joo, B. H, Im, J. M., Roh, B. R., Shin, Y. K., Im, S. A., Jeong, H. S. (2019) ‘An Analysis of the Policy of Aging Response in International Organizations and Major Pre-Experienced Countries’. Sejong City : Korea Institute for health and social affairs

4th Basic Plan for Low Birthrate and Aging Society, Korean Government. Available at :  https://www.betterfuture.go.kr/front/notificationSpace/pressReleaseDetail.do?articleId=117

Ewha Women University Industry-Academic Cooperation Group. (2020) Aging Policy by Age in Major Countries. Seoul City : Ewha Women University

Kim, W. S., Choi, O. K., Choi, I. D. (2019) A Study on the Supply and Demand Requirements of Public Old Age Income Security System in Major Countries. Seoul City : Korean National Assembly Budget Office

Korea National Assembly Budget Office. (2020) Population Change and Social Safety Countermeasures Network Policy Analysis. Seoul City : Korean National Assembly Budget Office

Korea National Assembly Budget Office. (2017) An Analysis of Measures to Expand Labor Base for Middle-aged and Elderly. Seoul City : Korean National Assembly Budget Office

Korea Communications Commission. (2011a) Access to Social Media and Plans for the Diffusion of Their Productive Uses. Seoul City : Korea Communications Commission

KT's Economic Management Institute. (2020a) 2020 Social Media Status and Prospect. Available at : https://www.kdi.re.kr/policy/publication2_view.jsp?idx=153700&pp=10&type=304&tcate=1&pg=1 (Accessed 6 Jan 2021)

John, J., Kim, S., Kim, H., Shuangling, X., Kim, S.T. (2019a) ‘The Impacts of SNS Uses on Off-line Political Participation: Focusing on Moderating Effects of SNS Reading and Writing’, Peace Studies, 27(1), pp. 169-205

Korea National Assembly Research Service. (2017a) The Spread of Civic Participation-type Politics and the Reform of Party Politics Seoul City : Korea National Assembly

Lee, D.H. (2017b) ‘The Constitutional Meaning of A Candlelight Assembly In Social Media Society - centering on the Right of Network access’, Public Law Journal 18(2), pp.3-24

Hong, J.H. (2020c) ‘The Constitutional Meaning of A Candlelight Assembly In Social Media Society - centering on the Right of Network access’, Public Law Journal 18(2), pp.3-24

Dudden, A. (2017c) ‘Revolution by Candlelight: How South Koreans Toppled a Government’, Available at : https://www.dissentmagazine.org/article/revolution-by-candlelight-how-south-koreans-toppled-a-government  (Accessed 6 Jan 2021)

Lee, W.T., (2011b) ‘The light and shadow of social media politics’, History that opens tomorrow(45), pp.105-133

Kang, M.H. (2016) ‘"Blame your parents. Money is also power" Jung Yu-ra's SNS 'controversy'’, The Nocut news, 11 Nov. Available at :  https://www.nocutnews.co.kr/news/4671310 (Accessed 6 Jan 2021)

Lee, K.I. (2019b) ‘Constitutional Review of Fake news Regulation in the Era of Social Networks’, Public Law Journal 20(1), pp.81-109

Yang, Y.K. (2019c) ‘How did Facebook cause genocide?’, Money today, 20 Nov. Available at : https://news.mt.co.kr/mtview.php?no=2019112014181879120 (Accessed 7 Jan 2021)

Lee, J.S, Jung, H.W. (2020d) ‘The Oppression of the Rohingya people by the Myanmar"s Military and its Countermeasures’, Korean Journal of Social Science 39(1), pp. 159-202

Guardian (2016a) “Myanmar Seeking Ethnic Cleansing, Says UN Official as Rohingya Flee Persecution.” 24 Nov. Available at : https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/nov/24/rohingya-flee-to-bangladesh-to-escape-myanmar-military-strikes

Newsmin (2018a) ‘Rohingya's tragedy and Facebook's irresponsibility’  19 Sept.  Available at : http://www.newsmin.co.kr/news/33490/ (Accessed 7 Jan 2021)

BBC Korea (2018b) ‘Social Media: The tragedy that Facebook brought to Myanmar’  14 Sept.  Available at : https://www.bbc.com/korean/international-45505344 (Accessed 7 Jan 2021)

Guardian (2018c) “Facebook removes accounts associated with Myanmar military”, 27 Aug. Available at : https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2018/aug/27/facebook-removes-accounts-myanmar-military-un-report-genocide-rohingya (Accessed 7 Jan 2021)

Frenkel, S. (2021a) ‘The storming of Capitol Hill was organized on social media’, The Ny Times, 1 Jan. Available at : https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/06/us/politics/protesters-storm-capitol-hill-building.html (Accessed 9 Jan 2021)

Twitter.com, Available at : https://twitter.com/TwitterSafety/status/1347684877634838528

Park, S.W. (2014) ‘Why does the political polarization continue in SNS?’ Social Science Research Review 30(1), pp.235-252

Kang, J.M. (2016b) ‘The Institutionalization of Hypocrisy Destructed by Media Revolution’, Discourse and Policy in Social Science 9(2), pp.85-115